Women in the Workforce
Women constitute half of the Indian population, yet their labor force participation is at 21%. This is shy of being one third of the men’s labor force participation rate that stands at 74.4%. This is an abysmally low number. Various factors drive our low numbers including but not limited to differential access to economic opportunities, gendered differences in the use of time with women preforming 9.8 times the work at home men do, differences in access to inputs which include capital and land, and systematic failures of the institutions that are in place in society. India’s WLFOR numbers are an anomaly—Nepal is at 81.5%, China at 600.6%, and Bangladesh at 36.7%.
Gendered Segregation
The jobs occupied by men and women differ greatly. These differences change as economic growth occurs, but some structural features cannot be removed through economic growth alone. Sen considers India’s gender disparity to be an unfreedom that doesn’t allow us to live our lives to the fullest. India is a largely rural country, 65% of the population lives in rural areas, of which over 48% is female. Women in rural areas are greatly bound by the household. They perform either domestic chores, help at the household farm, or run a small firm in their household. This means their employment is concentrated in low-productivity jobs. Majority of the landholdings are small and generate subsistence grains, and the firms face small demand. Thus, women are overrepresented in the unpaid family workers and in the informal sector. This greatly restricts their rise to positions of power. This is noticed even when women become political representatives, their decisions are made de facto by the men in their family. This creates a concrete roof for women in rural areas.
In urban areas, women are burdened with the “reproductive tax” or have to partake in the care economy. It has been noted that, on average, men put in 31% of the time women put in house work. The care economy is skewed towards women even in urban areas. Women are constantly reconciling their paid work with their unpaid domestic and care responsibilities. Women are largely found in processing plants, labor-intensive industries, and domestic work. As of 2012, women represented more than 50% of the workforce in communal services (public administration, education, health and other social services), among professionals (including teachers and nurses), clerical workers, and sales and service employees. They also represent more than 40 percent of employment in the retail and restaurant sectors and among agricultural workers. Eliminating the gendered segregation could increase the share of female workers in high productivity jobs, their presence in the managerial pool and raise the GDP of a country.
Other barriers included barriers include asymmetrical access to information, networks, opportunities for upskilling and inputs. One of the biggest drives of Bangladesh’s rises in WLFPR has been their targeting of women through microfinancing. Apart from providing credit, they also served as employers of women in a productive activity and created a virtuous cycle. Women-run businesses that are adequately funded can create job opportunities for more women as they are more attuned to their needs. Research by Bain has noted that women entrepreneurs create more jobs than their male counterparts!
What can be done?
Better Safety
When the Bihar government launched a welfare scheme that would provide cycles to female students enrolled in grade nine, a consideration was the safety cost of attending school. As Muralidharan and Prakash note, cycles provided greater safety as girls could travel together, increased the social acceptability of girls being able to leave the village, and increased their demand for schooling. Similarly, if workplaces enforced policies that made the work environment—not just workspace—safe, they might induce more women to take up jobs in such sectors. This includes improving safety standards, redressal mechanisms for sexual harassment, and gender sensitization.
More Real Political Representation
Ghani et al. find that longer exposure to female political representation (PR) increases women’s overall labour force participation – both from having women as members at all levels of local government as well as leaders of district councils. Greater exposure to women PRs raises the share of public employment opportunities allocated to women under the MGNREGS. Additionally, seeing women in positions of power also creates a narrative that women can move beyond the boundaries of their households and take up productive jobs that generate higher wages.
Gender Affirmative Policies
A majority of women are employed in the informal sector and withdraw or are absent due to sexual division of labour and discriminatory policies that don’t allow for income security, promote well-being or advance gender parity in the workplace. It is necessary to have policies that account for the caregiving context women operate in. This includes providing flexible hours, greater leave allowance, and salary adjustments as required through one’s professional growth.
Creating Jobs where Women Are
As of now, most conversations are focused on job creation in the cities. However, the rural market is an untapped resource. An increasing number of girl children are gaining formal education till 10th grade. This makes them good candidates for upskilling and vocational training. It is necessary for the jobs to go where jobseekers are.
Lesser Market Frictions
India allows women to own property and other assets, yet there is a lack of awareness about such programs. Women tend to own lower assets not merely because of wage discrimination but also due to credit market frictions that make it harder for a woman to get financial assistance from institutions. This reduces the capital available to become an entrepreneur. Thus, to not only reduce the financial dependence of women on men, but also to generate women run businesses, these market frictions must be done away with. Examples include self-help groups, targeted loans, incentivizing women-owned businesses, and preferential credit opportunities.
Conclusion
Lastly, a lot of what we have suggested relies on policies. A large reason I don’t have to fight for basic rights is because women before me have fought harder than I will ever need to. I come from a socioeconomic background that affords me certain opportunities. However, privilege is unequal and almost absent for some communities. As we stand on the shoulders of giants, it is our responsibility to further policymaking that is intersectional, cognizant of the context it operates in, and gender-affirmative.